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<title>Separation of powers</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Separation of powers</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Separation_of_powers_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Separation of powers (disambiguation)">Separation of powers (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks sidebar-pol"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="Politics" title="Politics">Politics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above">

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_politics_articles" title="Index of politics articles">Index</a></li>

<li>Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Primary topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline of political science</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_politics_articles" title="Index of politics articles">Index of politics articles</a></li>

<li><a href="Politics_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics by country">Politics by country</a></li>

<li><a href="Politics_of_country_subdivisions" title="Politics of country subdivisions">Politics by subdivision</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_history" title="Political history">Political history</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history of the world</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Political_system" title="Political system">Political systems</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a></li>

<li><a href="City-state" title="City-state">City-state</a></li>

<li><a href="Collective_leadership" title="Collective leadership">Collective leadership</a></li>

<li><a href="Confessional_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Confessional system">Confessional system</a></li>

<li><a href="Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li>

<li><a href="Directorial_system" title="Directorial system">Directorial</a></li>

<li><a href="Federacy" title="Federacy">Federacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Hybrid_regime" title="Hybrid regime">Hybrid regime</a></li>

<li><a href="Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li>

<li><a href="Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">Parliamentary</a></li>

<li><a href="Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">Presidential</a></li>

<li><a href="Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li>

<li><a href="Semi-parliamentary_system" title="Semi-parliamentary system">Semi-parliamentary</a></li>

<li><a href="Semi-presidential_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-presidential system">Semi-presidential</a></li>

<li><a href="Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Academic disciplines</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; line-height:1.15em;"><a href="Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(<a href="List_of_political_scientists" title="List of political scientists">political scientists</a>)</span></div></li>

<li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; line-height:1.15em;"><a href="International_relations" title="International relations">International relations</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(<a href="International_relations_theory" title="International relations theory">theory</a>)</span></div></li>

<li><a href="Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">Comparative politics</a></li>

<li><a href="Election_science" title="Election science">Election science</a></li>

<li><a href="Psephology" title="Psephology">Political analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Policy_studies" title="Policy studies">Policy studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public administration</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(<a href="Street-level_bureaucracy" title="Street-level bureaucracy">street-level</a>)</span></li>

<li><a href="Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Adhocracy" title="Adhocracy">Adhocracy</a></li>

<li>Service

<ul><li>(<a href="Public_service" title="Public service">Public</a> / <a href="Civil_service" title="Civil service">Civil</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(<a href="Public_policy_doctrine" title="Public policy doctrine">doctrine</a>)</span></li>

<li><a href="Domestic_policy" title="Domestic policy">Domestic policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Foreign_policy" title="Foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_interest" title="Public interest">Public interest</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Government branches</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li>

<li><a href="Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li>

<li><a href="Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li>

<li><a href="Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li>

<li><a href="Polity" title="Polity">Polity</a> / <a href="State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a> / <a href="Country" title="Country">Country</a></li>

<li><a href="Biology_and_political_orientation" title="Biology and political orientation">Biology and political orientation</a></li>

<li><a href="Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_censorship" title="Political censorship">Political censorship</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_organisation" title="Political organisation">Political organisations</a></li>

<li><a href="Theories_of_political_behavior" title="Theories of political behavior">Theories of political behavior</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Subseries</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Electoral_system" title="Electoral system">Electoral systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Election" title="Election">Elections</a>

<ul><li><a href="Voting" title="Voting">voting</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Political_unitarism" title="Political unitarism">Unitarism</a></li>

<li><a href="Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Government" title="Government">Government</a>

<ul><li>(<a href="List_of_forms_of_government" title="List of forms of government">forms</a> / <a href="Governance" title="Governance">Governance</a>)</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_culture" title="Political culture">Culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_campaign" title="Political campaign">Political campaigning</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_party" title="Political party">Political parties</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below">

<span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> </span><a href="Portal%3APolitics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

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<p>The <b>separation of powers</b> principle functionally differentiates several types of <a href="State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a> power (usually <a href="Legislature#Legislation" title="Legislature">law-making</a>, <a href="Adjudication" title="Adjudication">adjudication</a>, and <a href="Executive_(government)#Function" title="Executive (government)">execution</a>) and requires these operations of <a href="Government" title="Government">government</a> to be conceptually and institutionally distinguishable and articulated, thereby maintaining the integrity of each.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron2013457–458_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron2013457–458-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To put this model into practice, government is divided into structurally independent branches to perform various functions<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron2013459–460_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron2013459–460-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (most often a legislature, a judiciary and an administration, sometimes known as the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">trias politica</i></span>). When each function is allocated strictly to one branch, a government is described as having a high degree of separation; whereas, when one person or branch plays a significant part in the exercise of more than one function, this represents a <a href="Fusion_of_powers" title="Fusion of powers">fusion of powers</a>. When one branch holds unlimited state power and delegates its powers to other organs as it sees fit, as is the case in <a href="Communist_state" title="Communist state">communist states</a>, that is called <a href="Unified_power" title="Unified power">unified power</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist sidebar-pol"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the Politics series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Abolition_of_monarchy" title="Abolition of monarchy">Anti-monarchism</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-corruption" title="Anti-corruption">Anti-corruption</a></li>

<li><a href="Civic_virtue" title="Civic virtue">Civic virtue</a></li>

<li><a href="Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li>

<li><a href="Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li>

<li><a href="Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberty#Republican_liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty as non-domination</a></li>

<li><a href="Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">Mixed government</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_representation" title="Political representation">Political representation</a></li>

<li><a href="Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_participation_(decision_making)" title="Public participation (decision making)">Public participation</a></li>

<li><a href="Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li>

<li><a href="Res_publica" title="Res publica">Res publica</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-governance" title="Self-governance">Self-governance</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">Classical</a></li>

<li><a href="Federal_republicanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal republicanism">Federal</a></li>

<li><a href="Kemalism" title="Kemalism">Kemalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Khomeinism" title="Khomeinism">Khomeinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Modern_republicanism" title="Modern republicanism">Modern</a></li>

<li><a href="Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li>

<li><a href="Republicanism#Neo-republicanism" title="Republicanism">Neo-republicanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Venizelism" title="Venizelism">Venizelism</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Autonomous_republic" title="Autonomous republic">Autonomous</a></li>

<li><a href="Capitalist_republic" title="Capitalist republic">Capitalist</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_republic" title="Christian republic">Christian</a></li>

<li><a href="Democratic_republic" title="Democratic republic">Democratic</a></li>

<li><a href="Federal_republic" title="Federal republic">Federal</a></li>

<li><a href="Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Imperial</a></li>

<li><a href="Islamic_republic" title="Islamic republic">Islamic</a></li>

<li><a href="Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime</a></li>

<li><a href="Parliamentary_republic" title="Parliamentary republic">Parliamentary</a></li>

<li><a href="Peasant_republic" title="Peasant republic">Peasant</a></li>

<li><a href="People's_republic" title="People's republic">People's</a></li>

<li><a href="Revolutionary_republic" title="Revolutionary republic">Revolutionary</a></li>

<li><a href="Secular_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular republic">Secular</a></li>

<li><a href="Sister_republic" title="Sister republic">Sister</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_republic" title="Soviet republic">Soviet</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Philosophers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li>

<li><a href="Julian_Baggini" title="Julian Baggini">Baggini</a></li>

<li><a href="Andr%C3%A9s_Bello" title="Andrés Bello">Bello</a></li>

<li><a href="Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li>

<li><a href="Carlo_Cattaneo" title="Carlo Cattaneo">Cattaneo</a></li>

<li><a href="Sophie_Grace_Chappell" title="Sophie Grace Chappell">Chappell</a></li>

<li><a href="Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li>

<li><a href="Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernard_Crick" title="Bernard Crick">Crick</a></li>

<li><a href="Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li>

<li><a href="Ted_Honderich" title="Ted Honderich">Honderich</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li>

<li><a href="Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li>

<li><a href="Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li>

<li><a href="Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li>

<li><a href="Philip_Pettit" title="Philip Pettit">Pettit</a></li>

<li><a href="Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Sandel</a></li>

<li><a href="Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li>

<li><a href="Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Sunstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li>

<li><a href="Nigel_Warburton" title="Nigel Warburton">Warburton</a></li>

<li><a href="Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Gerry_Adams" title="Gerry Adams">Adams (Gerry)</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams (John)</a></li>

<li><a href="Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Atatürk</a></li>

<li><a href="Manuel_Aza%C3%B1a" title="Manuel Azaña">Azaña</a></li>

<li><a href="Jonathan_Bartley" title="Jonathan Bartley">Bartley</a></li>

<li><a href="Natalie_Bennett" title="Natalie Bennett">Bennett</a></li>

<li><a href="Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li>

<li><a href="Maggie_Chapman" title="Maggie Chapman">Chapman</a></li>

<li><a href="Katy_Clark" title="Katy Clark">Clark (Katy)</a></li>

<li><a href="Tom_Clarke_(Irish_republican)" title="Tom Clarke (Irish republican)">Clarke (Tom)</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Connolly" title="James Connolly">Connolly</a></li>

<li><a href="Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Cromwell</a></li>

<li><a href="Ian_Davidson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Ian Davidson (Scottish politician)">Davidson</a></li>

<li><a href="Mark_Drakeford" title="Mark Drakeford">Drakeford</a></li>

<li><a href="Bill_Etherington" title="Bill Etherington">Etherington</a></li>

<li><a href="Linda_Fabiani" title="Linda Fabiani">Fabiani</a></li>

<li><a href="Mark_Ferguson_(politician)" title="Mark Ferguson (politician)">Ferguson</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephen_Flynn" title="Stephen Flynn">Flynn</a></li>

<li><a href="L%C3%A9on_Gambetta" title="Léon Gambetta">Gambetta</a></li>

<li><a href="Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Garibaldi</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">de Gaulle</a></li>

<li><a href="Jules_Gr%C3%A9vy" title="Jules Grévy">Grévy</a></li>

<li><a href="Nia_Griffith" title="Nia Griffith">Griffith</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Griffiths_(Welsh_politician)" title="John Griffiths (Welsh politician)">Griffiths</a></li>

<li><a href="Patrick_Harvie" title="Patrick Harvie">Harvie</a></li>

<li><a href="Derek_Hatton" title="Derek Hatton">Hatton</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacques_H%C3%A9bert" title="Jacques Hébert">Hébert</a></li>

<li><a href="Kelvin_Hopkins" title="Kelvin Hopkins">Hopkins</a></li>

<li><a href="Julian_Huppert" title="Julian Huppert">Huppert</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhun_ap_Iorwerth" title="Rhun ap Iorwerth">Iorwerth</a></li>

<li><a href="Glenda_Jackson" title="Glenda Jackson">Jackson</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li>

<li><a href="Elin_Jones" title="Elin Jones">Jones (Elin)</a></li>

<li><a href="Lynne_Jones" title="Lynne Jones">Jones (Lynne)</a></li>

<li><a href="Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Khomeini</a></li>

<li><a href="Ugo_La_Malfa" title="Ugo La Malfa">La Malfa</a></li>

<li><a href="Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li>

<li><a href="Clive_Lewis_(politician)" title="Clive Lewis (politician)">Lewis</a></li>

<li><a href="Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li>

<li><a href="Caroline_Lucas" title="Caroline Lucas">Lucas</a></li>

<li><a href="Gillian_Mackay" title="Gillian Mackay">Mackay</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Lyon_Mackenzie" title="William Lyon Mackenzie">Mackenzie</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li>

<li><a href="Magid_Magid" title="Magid Magid">Magid</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethel_Mannin" title="Ethel Mannin">Mannin</a></li>

<li><a href="John_McDonnell" title="John McDonnell">McDonnell</a></li>

<li><a href="Ann_McKechin" title="Ann McKechin">McKechin</a></li>

<li><a href="Chris_Mullin_(politician)" title="Chris Mullin (politician)">Mullin</a></li>

<li><a href="Lisa_Nandy" title="Lisa Nandy">Nandy</a></li>

<li><a href="Doug_Naysmith" title="Doug Naysmith">Naysmith</a></li>

<li><a href="Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Nehru</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephen_Pound" title="Stephen Pound">Pound</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Prescott" title="John Prescott">Prescott</a></li>

<li><a href="Ken_Ritchie" title="Ken Ritchie">Ritchie</a></li>

<li><a href="Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Robespierre</a></li>

<li><a href="Bethan_Sayed" title="Bethan Sayed">Sayed</a></li>

<li><a href="Ken_Skates" title="Ken Skates">Skates</a></li>

<li><a href="Dennis_Skinner" title="Dennis Skinner">Skinner</a></li>

<li><a href="Lorna_Slater" title="Lorna Slater">Slater</a></li>

<li><a href="Andy_Slaughter" title="Andy Slaughter">Slaughter</a></li>

<li><a href="Cat_Smith" title="Cat Smith">Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="Giovanni_Spadolini" title="Giovanni Spadolini">Spadolini</a></li>

<li><a href="Dick_Taverne" title="Dick Taverne">Taverne</a></li>

<li><a href="Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li>

<li><a href="Bill_Wilson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Bill Wilson (Scottish politician)">Wilson</a></li>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><i><a href="Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(54–51 BC)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Discourses_on_Livy" title="Discourses on Livy">Discourses on Livy</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1531)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Tenure_of_Kings_and_Magistrates" title="The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates">The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1649)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Commonwealth_of_Oceana" title="The Commonwealth of Oceana">The Commonwealth of Oceana</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1656)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Discourses_Concerning_Government" title="Discourses Concerning Government">Discourses Concerning Government</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1698)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1748)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1755)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1762)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1787–1788)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1791)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Perpetual_Peace%3A_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1794)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="On_Revolution" title="On Revolution">On Revolution</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1963)</span></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li>

<li><a href="Ga%E1%B9%87asa%E1%B9%85gha" title="Gaṇasaṅgha"><span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Gaṇasaṅgha</i></span></a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Classical Athens</a></li>

<li><a href="Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a></li>

<li><a href="Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li>

<li><a href="Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li>

<li><a href="Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li>

<li><a href="American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a></li>

<li><a href="Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a></li>

<li><a href="French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">French Revolution of 1848</a></li>

<li><a href="5_October_1910_revolution" title="5 October 1910 revolution">5 October 1910 revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Chinese Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution of 1918–1919</a></li>

<li><a href="Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a></li>

<li><a href="Mongolian_Revolution_of_1921" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1921">Mongolian Revolution of 1921</a></li>

<li><a href="11_September_1922_Revolution" title="11 September 1922 Revolution">11 September 1922 Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="1935_Greek_coup_d'%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1935 Greek coup d'état attempt">1935 Greek coup d'état attempt</a></li>

<li><a href="Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">1946 Italian institutional referendum</a></li>

<li><a href="1952_Egyptian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="North_Yemen_civil_war" title="North Yemen civil war">North Yemen civil war</a></li>

<li><a href="Zanzibar_Revolution" title="Zanzibar Revolution">Zanzibar Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="1969_Libyan_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="1969 Libyan coup d'état">1969 Libyan coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="1970_Cambodian_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1970 Cambodian coup d'état">1970 Cambodian coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li>

<li><a href="Iranian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="1987_Fijian_coups_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1987 Fijian coups d'état">1987 Fijian coups d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="Nepalese_Civil_War" title="Nepalese Civil War">Nepalese Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbadian Republic Proclamation</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">National variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Republicanism_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Republicanism in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li>

<li><a href="Republicanism_in_Australia" title="Republicanism in Australia">Australia</a></li>

<li><a href="Republicanism_in_the_Bahamas" title="Republicanism in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li>

<li><a href="Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbados</a></li>

<li><a href="Republicanism_in_Canada" title="Republicanism in Canada">Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="Irish_republicanism" title="Irish republicanism">Ireland</a></li>

<li><a href="Republicanism_in_Jamaica" title="Republicanism in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-monarchism_in_Japan" title="Anti-monarchism in Japan">Japan</a></li>

<li><a href="Republicanism_in_Morocco" title="Republicanism in Morocco">Morocco</a></li>

<li><a href="Republicanism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Republicanism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li>

<li><a href="Republicanism_in_New_Zealand" title="Republicanism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li>

<li><a href="Republicanism_in_Norway" title="Republicanism in Norway">Norway</a></li>

<li><a href="Republicanism_in_Spain" title="Republicanism in Spain">Spain</a></li>

<li><a href="Republicanism_in_Sweden" title="Republicanism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li>

<li><a href="Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Republicanism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>

<ul><li><a href="Scottish_republicanism" title="Scottish republicanism">Scotland</a></li>

<li><a href="Welsh_republicanism" title="Welsh republicanism">Wales</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Republic days</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Republic_Day_(Armenia)" title="Republic Day (Armenia)">Armenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Independence_Day_(Azerbaijan)" title="Independence Day (Azerbaijan)">Azerbaijan</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Day_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China" title="National Day of the People's Republic of China">China</a></li>

<li><a href="Icelandic_National_Day" title="Icelandic National Day">Iceland</a></li>

<li><a href="Republic_Day_(India)" title="Republic Day (India)">India</a></li>

<li><a href="Festa_della_Repubblica" title="Festa della Repubblica">Italy</a></li>

<li><a href="Republic_Day_(Kazakhstan)" title="Republic Day (Kazakhstan)">Kazakhstan</a></li>

<li><a href="Republic_Day_(Malta)" title="Republic Day (Malta)">Malta</a></li>

<li><a href="Independence_Day_of_the_Republic_of_Moldova" title="Independence Day of the Republic of Moldova">Moldova</a></li>

<li><a href="Republic_Day_(Nepal)" title="Republic Day (Nepal)">Nepal</a></li>

<li><a href="Republic_Day_(Niger)" title="Republic Day (Niger)">Niger</a></li>

<li><a href="Day_of_the_Foundation_of_the_Republic" title="Day of the Foundation of the Republic">North Korea</a></li>

<li><a href="Republic_Day_(North_Macedonia)" title="Republic Day (North Macedonia)">North Macedonia</a></li>

<li><a href="Pakistan_Day" title="Pakistan Day">Pakistan</a></li>

<li><a href="Republic_Day_(Philippines)" title="Republic Day (Philippines)">Philippines</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Day_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="National Day of the Republic of China">Taiwan</a></li>

<li><a href="Republic_Day_(Turkey)" title="Republic Day (Turkey)">Turkey</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Classical radicalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li>

<li><a href="Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Criticism_of_monarchy" title="Criticism of monarchy">Criticism of monarchy</a></li>

<li><a href="Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Emperor's_New_Clothes" title="The Emperor's New Clothes">The Emperor's New Clothes</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacobin_(politics)" title="Jacobin (politics)">Jacobinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_republics" title="List of republics">List of republics</a></li>

<li><a href="Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li>

<li><a href="Peasant_republic" title="Peasant republic">Peasant republic</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Primus_inter_pares" title="Primus inter pares">Primus inter pares</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Republic_without_republicans" title="Republic without republicans">Republic without republicans</a></li>

<li><a href="Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Republican empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Republican_Party_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Republican Party (disambiguation)">Republican Party</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below">

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h3></div>

<p><a href="Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> (<i>Histories</i>, Book 6, 11–13) described the <a href="Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> as a <a href="Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">mixed government</a> ruled by the <a href="Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>, <a href="Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consuls</a> and the <a href="Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Assemblies</a>. Polybius explained the system of checks and balances in detail, crediting <a href="Lycurgus_of_Sparta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycurgus of Sparta">Lycurgus of Sparta</a> with the first government of this kind.<sup id="cite_ref-Polibius_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Polibius-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tripartite_system">Tripartite system</h3></div>

<p>During the <a href="English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a>, the parliamentarians viewed the English system of government as composed of three branches – the King, the <a href="House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> and the <a href="House_of_Commons" title="House of Commons">House of Commons</a> – where the first should have executive powers only, and the latter two legislative powers. One of the first documents proposing a tripartite system of separation of powers was the <a href="Instrument_of_Government" title="Instrument of Government">Instrument of Government</a>, written by the English general <a href="John_Lambert_(general)" title="John Lambert (general)">John Lambert</a> in 1653, and soon adopted as the constitution of England for few years during <a href="The_Protectorate" title="The Protectorate">The Protectorate</a>. The system comprised a legislative branch (the Parliament) and two executive branches, the <a href="English_Council_of_State" title="English Council of State">English Council of State</a> and the <a href="Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a>, all being elected (though the Lord Protector was elected for life) and having checks upon each other.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A further development in English thought was the idea that the judicial powers should be separated from the executive branch. This followed the use of the juridical system by the Crown to prosecute opposition leaders following <a href="The_English_Restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="The English Restoration">the Restoration</a>, in the late years of <a href="Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a> and during the short reign of <a href="James_II_of_England" title="James II of England">James II</a> (namely, during the 1680s).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="John_Locke's_legislative,_executive,_and_federative_powers">John Locke's legislative, executive, and federative powers</h3></div>

<p>An earlier forerunner to Montesquieu's tripartite system was articulated by <a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> in his work <i><a href="Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> (1690).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurland1986595_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurland1986595-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <i>Two Treatises</i>, Locke distinguished between legislative, executive, and federative power. Locke defined legislative power as having "the right to direct how the force of the commonwealth shall be employed" (<i>Second Treatise</i>, § 143), while executive power entailed the "execution of the laws that are made, and remain in force" (<i>Second Treatise</i>, § 144). Locke further distinguished federative power, which entailed "the power of war and peace, leagues and alliances, and all transactions with all persons and communities without [outside] the commonwealth" (<i>Second Treatise</i>, § 145), or what is now known as <a href="Foreign_policy" title="Foreign policy">foreign policy</a>. Locke distinguishes between separate powers but not discretely separate institutions, and notes that one body or person can share in two or more of the powers.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, Locke noted that while the executive and federative powers are different, they are often combined in a single institution (<i>Second Treatise</i>, § 148).

</p><p>Locke believed that the legislative power was supreme over the executive and federative powers, which are subordinate.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Locke reasoned that the legislative was supreme because it has law-giving authority; "[F]or what can give laws to another, must need to be superior to him" (<i>Second Treatise</i>, § 150). According to Locke, legislative power derives its authority from the people, who have the right to make and unmake the legislature. He argues that once people consent to be governed by laws, only those representatives they have chosen can create laws on their behalf, and they are bound solely by laws enacted by these representatives.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Locke maintained that there are restrictions on the legislative power. Locke says that the legislature cannot govern arbitrarily, cannot levy taxes, or confiscate property without the <a href="Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">consent of the governed</a> (cf. "<a href="No_taxation_without_representation" title="No taxation without representation">No taxation without representation</a>"), and cannot transfer its law-making powers to another body, known as the <a href="Nondelegation_doctrine" title="Nondelegation doctrine">nondelegation doctrine</a> (<i>Second Treatise</i>, § 142).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Montesquieu's_separation_of_powers_system">Montesquieu's separation of powers system</h3></div>

<p>The term "tripartite system" is commonly ascribed to French <a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> <a href="Political_philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Political philosopher">political philosopher</a> <a href="Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, although he did not use such a term but referred to the "distribution" of powers. In <i><a href="The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> (1748),<sup id="cite_ref-Espritdeslois3_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Espritdeslois3-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Montesquieu described the various forms of distribution of <a href="Political_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Political power">political power</a> among a <a href="Legislature" title="Legislature">legislature</a>, an <a href="Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive</a>, and a <a href="Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judiciary</a>. Montesquieu's approach was to present and defend a form of government whose powers were not excessively centralized in a single monarch or similar ruler (a form known then as "aristocracy"). He based this model on the <a href="Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Constitution of the Roman Republic</a> and the <a href="Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the United Kingdom">British constitutional system</a>. Montesquieu took the view that the Roman Republic had powers separated so that no one could usurp complete power.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the British constitutional system, Montesquieu discerned a separation of powers among the monarch, Parliament, and the courts of law.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

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<p>In every government there are three sorts of power: the legislative; the executive in respect to things dependent on the law of nations; and the executive in regard to matters that depend on the civil law.

</p><p>By virtue of the first, the prince or magistrate enacts temporary or perpetual laws and amends or abrogates those that have been already enacted. By the second, he makes peace or war, sends or receives embassies, establishes public security, and provides against invasions. By the third, he punishes criminals or determines the disputes that arise between individuals. The latter we shall call the judiciary power, and the other simply the executive power of the state.

</p>

</blockquote>

<p>Montesquieu argues that each Power should only exercise its own functions. He was quite explicit here:<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body of magistrates, there can be no liberty; because apprehensions may arise, lest the same monarch or senate should enact tyrannical laws, to execute them in a tyrannical manner.

</p><p>Again, there is no liberty, if the judiciary power is not separated from the legislative and executive. Were it joined with the legislative, the life and liberty of the subject would be exposed to arbitrary control; for the judge would be then the legislator. Were it joined to the executive power, the judge might behave with violence and oppression.

</p><p>

There would be an end to everything, were the same man or the same body, whether of the nobles or of the people, to exercise those three powers, that of enacting laws, executing the public resolutions, and trying the causes of individuals. </p></blockquote>

<p>Separation of powers requires a different source of legitimization, or a different act of legitimization from the same source, for each of the separate powers. If the legislative branch appoints the executive and judicial powers, as Montesquieu indicated, there will be no separation or division of its powers, since the power to appoint carries with it the power to revoke.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>The executive power ought to be in the hands of a monarch, because this branch of government, having need of despatch, is better administered by one than by many: on the other hand, whatever depends on the legislative power is oftentimes better regulated by many than by a single person.

</p><p>But if there were no monarch, and the executive power should be committed to a certain number of persons selected from the legislative body, there would be an end then of liberty; by reason, the two powers would be united, as the same persons would sometimes possess, and would be always able to possess, a share in both.

</p>

</blockquote>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Checks_and_balances">Checks and balances</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Checks and balances" redirects here. For the conservative-libertarian organization, see <a href="Checks_and_Balances_(organization)" title="Checks and Balances (organization)">Checks and Balances (organization)</a>.</div>

<p>In most modern constitutions, the separation of powers doctrine is modified by the notion of moderate, balanced government or "checks and balances"<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – a distinct idea that was developed from the ancient theory of <a href="Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">mixed government</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVile196718_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVile196718-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the two concepts developed alongside each other,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVile19672–3_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVile19672–3-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they have been closely associated, even though they are in conflict to some extent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVile196733–34_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVile196733–34-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, constitutional provisions – notably those of the United States Constitution<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVile1967120–121_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVile1967120–121-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – may reflect compromises between the two principles,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVile196771–72_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVile196771–72-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading the terms "separation of powers" and "checks and balances" to become shorthand for the institutional distribution of legal authority under a specific constitution. They are at times even used interchangeably.

</p><p>A government with checks and balances comprises more than one institution (often called a "branch" or "a power") exercising state power, and intends for each institution to have some influence over the other (interdependence). One institution may then "check" the other, or hinder it from using its power to pursue its ends – such as by declaring one of its actions a legal nullity or by questioning and removing one of its officers from their position. For instance, many parliaments consist of two houses; both of which are required to pass a bill before it becomes a law. A system of checks and balances also requires a balance of power between the institutions, so that the goals and actions of one are not completely determined by the other (independence); if both institutions were always in agreement by dint of one dominating the other, they would never challenge each other.

</p><p>In a democratic state, where all government institutions are constituted by popular elections or through appointment by an elected body, disagreement between institutions may arise from conflicting institutional identities, fostered by differing internal power structures, decision-making processes or appointment procedures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagill20001170–72_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagill20001170–72-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To continue the example of a bicameral parliament, members of the upper house of the United States Congress are each elected by the entire people of one federal state; whereas each member of its lower house is elected by their electoral district, a smaller and more localized constituency. A member representing a larger and more diverse base may require a broader coalition, composed of people with opposing interests, to win election, and is thus incentivized to moderate their stance; and vice versa.

</p><p>One branch's efforts to prevent another branch from becoming supreme are thought to perpetually hinder any branch from imposing unduly severe measures on the governed. <a href="Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> took this view, saying that "the problem of setting up a state can be solved even by a nation of devils,"<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so long as they possess an appropriate constitution to pit opposing factions against each other.

</p><p>Checks and balances are designed to maintain the system of separation of powers keeping each branch in its place. The idea is that it is not enough to separate the powers and guarantee their independence but the branches need to have the constitutional means to defend their own legitimate powers from the encroachments of the other branches.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under this influence it was implemented in 1787 in the <a href="Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Constitution of the United States separation of powers</a>. In <a href="Federalist_No._78" title="Federalist No. 78">Federalist No. 78</a>, <a href="Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>, citing Montesquieu, redefined the judiciary as a separately distinct branch of government with the legislative and the executive branches.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before Hamilton, many colonists in the American colonies had adhered to British political ideas and conceived of government as divided into executive and legislative branches (with judges operating as appendages of the executive branch).<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>James Madison wrote about checks (and balances) in <a href="Federalist_No._51" title="Federalist No. 51">Federalist No. 51</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-federalistNo51_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-federalistNo51-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary. In framing a government that is to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself.

</p><p>A dependence on the people is, no doubt, the primary control of the government; but experience has taught mankind the necessity of auxiliary precautions. This policy of supplying, by opposite and rival interests, the defect of better motives, might be traced through the whole system of human affairs, private as well as public. We see it particularly displayed in all the subordinate distributions of power, where the constant aim is to divide and arrange the several offices in such a manner as that each may be a check on the other and that the private interest of every individual may be a sentinel over the public rights. These inventions of prudence cannot be less requisite in the distribution of the supreme powers of the State.

</p>

</blockquote>

<p><a href="Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a> wrote about balances in <i><a href="Common_Sense" title="Common Sense">Common Sense</a></i>:<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

Some writers have explained the English Constitution thus: the king, say they, is one, the people another; the peers are a house in behalf of the king, the Commons in behalf of the people; but this hath all the distinctions of a house divided against itself; and though the expressions be pleasantly arranged, yet when examined they appear idle and ambiguous [...] for as the greater weight will always carry up the less, and as all the wheels of a machine are put in motion by one, it only remains to know which power in the constitution has the most weight, for that will govern: and though the others [may] check the rapidity of its motion, yet so long as they cannot stop it, their endeavours will be ineffectual: The first moving power will at last have its way, and what it wants in speed is supplied by time.</p></blockquote>

<p>Importantly, Thomas Paine rejected the theory that English liberty was secured by constitutionally guaranteed checks and balances. Denouncing the whole notion of checks and balances, at least as far as the English constitution was concerned, Paine articulated the case for republican virtue as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

[T]he plain truth is that it is wholly owing to the constitution of the people and not to the constitution of the government that the crown is not as oppressive in England as in Turkey.</p></blockquote>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories_of_division_of_state_power">Theories of division of state power</h2></div>

<p>There are different theories about how to differentiate the functions of the state (or types of government power), so that they may be distributed among multiple structures of government (usually called branches of government, or arms).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are analytical theories that provide a conceptual lens through which to understand the separation of powers as realized in real-world governments (developed by the academic discipline of <a href="Comparative_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparative government">comparative government</a>); there are also <a href="Normativity" title="Normativity">normative</a> theories,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> both of <a href="Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a> and <a href="Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">constitutional law</a>, meant to propose a reasoned (not conventional or arbitrary) way to separate powers. Disagreement arises between various normative theories in particular about what is the (desirable, in the case of political philosophy, or prescribed, in the case of legal studies) allocation of functions to specific governing bodies or branches of government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMöllers2019234_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMöllers2019234-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> How to correctly or usefully delineate and define the 'state functions' is another major bone of contention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMöllers2019240_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMöllers2019240-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legislation">Legislation</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Legislature#Legislation" title="Legislature">Legislature § Legislation</a>, and <a href="Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></div>

<p>The legislative function of the government broadly consists of authoritatively issuing binding rules.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adjudication">Adjudication</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a> and <a href="Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment (law)</a></div>

<p>The function of adjudication (judicial function) is the binding application of legal rules to a particular case, which usually involves creatively interpreting and developing these rules.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Execution">Execution</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Executive_(government)#Function" title="Executive (government)">Executive (government) § Function</a></div>

<p>The executive function of government includes many exercises of powers in fact, whether in carrying into effect legal decisions or affecting the real world on its own initiative.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Additional_types">Additional types</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Government_agency" title="Government agency">Government agency</a>, <a href="Constitutional_court" title="Constitutional court">Constitutional court</a>, and <a href="Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></div>

<p>Adjudicating constitutional disputes is sometimes conceptually distinguished from other types of power, because applying the often unusually indeterminate provisions of constitutions tends to call for exceptional methods to come to reasoned decisions. Administration is sometimes proposed as a hybrid function, combining aspects of the three other functions; opponents of this view conceive of the actions of administrative agencies as consisting of the three established functions being exercised next to each other merely in fact. Supervision and integrity-assuring activities (e.g., supervision of elections), as well as mediating functions (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">pouvoir neutre</i></span>), are also in some instances regarded as their own type, rather than a subset or combination of other types. For instance, Sweden has four powers, judicial, executive, legislative and administrative branches.

</p><p>One example of a country with more than 3 branches is <a href="Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, which uses a five-branch system. This system consists of the <a href="Executive_Yuan" title="Executive Yuan">Executive Yuan</a>, <a href="Legislative_Yuan" title="Legislative Yuan">Legislative Yuan</a>, <a href="Judicial_Yuan" title="Judicial Yuan">Judicial Yuan</a>, <a href="Control_Yuan" title="Control Yuan">Control Yuan</a>, and <a href="Examination_Yuan" title="Examination Yuan">Examination Yuan</a>.

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fusion_of_powers" title="Fusion of powers">Fusion of powers</a></li>

<li><a href="Parliamentary_sovereignty" title="Parliamentary sovereignty">Parliamentary sovereignty</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li>

<li><a href="Pith_and_substance" title="Pith and substance">Pith and substance</a></li>

<li><a href="Consociationalism" title="Consociationalism">Power sharing</a></li>

<li><a href="Reserve_power" title="Reserve power">Reserve power</a></li>

<li><a href="Separation_of_duties" title="Separation of duties">Separation of duties</a></li>

<li><a href="Unified_power" title="Unified power">Unified power</a></li></ul></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

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</style><cite id="CITEREFGwyn1965" class="citation book cs1">Gwyn, William B. (1965). <i>The Meaning of the Separation of Powers. An Analysis of the Doctrine from its Origin to the Adoption of the United States Constitution</i>. Tulane Studies in Political Science. Vol. IX. New Orleans/The Hague: Tulane University Press/Martinus Nijhoff. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/174573519">174573519</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFVile1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Maurice_Vile" title="Maurice Vile">Vile, Maurice J. C.</a> (1967). <i>Constitutionalism and the Separation of Powers</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/390050">390050</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFKurland1986" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Philip_B._Kurland" title="Philip B. Kurland">Kurland, Philip B.</a> (December 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/journal_articles/8021">"The Rise and Fall of the 'Doctrine' of Separation of Powers"</a>. <i>Michigan Law Review</i>. <b>85</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">592–</span>613. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1288758">10.2307/1288758</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1288758">1288758</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFMagill2000" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Liz_Magill" title="Liz Magill">Magill, M. Elizabeth</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/faculty_scholarship/2863/">"The Real Separation in Separation of Powers Law"</a>. <i>Virginia Law Review</i>. <b>86</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1127–</span>1198. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1073943">1073943</a>. <a href="SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=224797">224797</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBarber2001" class="citation journal cs1">Barber, Nicholas W. (March 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:8b474593-88ae-41ab-967a-6994fe8e3779/files/me4aa7240386346f431b3ed13501aeb37">"Prelude to the Separation of Powers"</a>. <i>The Cambridge Law Journal</i>. <b>60</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">59–</span>88. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0008197301000629">10.1017/S0008197301000629</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4508751">4508751</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFWaldron2013" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Jeremy_Waldron" title="Jeremy Waldron">Waldron, Jeremy</a> (28 March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bclawreview.bc.edu/articles/702">"Separation of Powers in Thought and Practice?"</a>. <i>Boston College Law Review</i>. <b>54</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">433–</span>468.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFMöllers2013" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_M%C3%B6llers" class="extiw external" title="de:Christoph Möllers">Möllers, Christoph</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in German]</span> (2013). <i>The Three Branches: A Comparative Model of Separation of Powers</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780198738084</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/818450015">818450015</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFMöllers2019" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Möllers, Christoph (September 2019). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-comparative-constitutional-law/separation-of-powers/3A31875119575C2579078E364117393A">"Separation of Powers (ch. 9)"</a></span>. In Masterman, Roger; Schütze, Robert (eds.). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Comparative Constitutional Law</i>. Cambridge Companions to Law. Cambridge University Press. pp. 230‒257. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781316716731">10.1017/9781316716731</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-107-16781-0</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1099539425">1099539425</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFSandro2022" class="citation book cs1">Sandro, Paolo (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/monograph?docid=b-9781509905249"><i>The Making of Constitutional Democracy: From Creation to Application of Law</i></a>. Law and Practical Reason. Vol. 13. Oxford: Bloomsbury (Hart imprint). <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5040%2F9781509905249">10.5040/9781509905249</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-50990-524-9</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1274231156">1274231156</a>. <a href="OAPEN" class="mw-redirect" title="OAPEN">OAPEN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/74777">20.500.12657/74777</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Peter Barenboim, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.florentine-society.ru/pdf/Biblical_Roots_of_Separation_of_Powers.pdf">Biblical Roots of Separation of Powers</a></i>, Moscow, Letny Sad, 2005. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>5-94381-123-0</bdi>, Permalink: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lccn.loc.gov/2006400578">LC Catalog - Item Information (Full Record)</a></li>

<li>Biancamaria Fontana (ed.), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521033764">The Invention of the Modern Republic</a></i> (2007) <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-03376-3</bdi></li>

<li>Bernard Manin, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GhAJ2x2coEoC">Principles of Representative Government</a></i> (1995; English version 1997) <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-521-45258-9</bdi> (hbk), <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-521-45891-9</bdi> (pbk)</li>

<li>José María Maravall and <a href="Adam_Przeworski" title="Adam Przeworski">Adam Przeworski</a> (eds), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EMB-F6Forx8C">Democracy and the Rule of Law</a></i> (2003) <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-521-82559-8</bdi> (hbk), <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-521-53266-3</bdi> (pbk)</li>

<li>Paul A. Rahe, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110716145832/http://www.hillsdalesites.org/personal/prahe/logicofliberty.html"><i>Montesquieu and the Logic of Liberty</i></a> (2009) <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-300-14125-2</bdi> (hbk), <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-300-16808-2</bdi> (pbk)</li>

<li>Iain Stewart, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120319161702/http://www.law.mq.edu.au/research/law_journals/macquarie_law_journal/">"Men of Class: Aristotle, Montesquieu and Dicey on 'Separation of Powers' and 'the Rule of Law'"</a> 4 <i>Macquarie Law Journal</i> 187 (2004)</li>

<li>Iain Stewart, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110408194916/http://ouclf.iuscomp.org/articles/montesquieu.shtml">"Montesquieu in England: his 'Notes on England', with Commentary and Translation"</a> (2002)</li>

<li><a href="Alec_Stone_Sweet" title="Alec Stone Sweet">Alec Stone Sweet</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=61AzsGk7EW0C">Governing with Judges: Constitutional Politics in Europe</a></i> (2000) <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-829730-7</bdi></li>

<li>Evan C. Zoldan, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3106780">Is the Federal Judiciary Independent of Congress?</a></i>, 70 Stan. L. Rev. Online 135 (2018).</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Separation_of_powers" class="extiw external" title="q:Special:Search/Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></b></i>.</div></div>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mlloyd.org/mdl-indx/polybius/intro.htm">Polybius and the Founding Fathers: the separation of powers</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/43/9.html">Arbitrary Government Described and the Government of the Massachusetts Vindicated from that Aspersion (1644)</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h3></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citation_footnotes">Citation footnotes</h3></div>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron2013457–458-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron2013457–458_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaldron2013">Waldron 2013</a>, pp. 457–458.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron2013459–460-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron2013459–460_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaldron2013">Waldron 2013</a>, pp. 459–460.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Polibius-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Polibius_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Polibius. (~150 B.C.). The Rise of the Roman Empire. Translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert (1979). Penguin Classics. London, England.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFVile2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="Maurice_Vile" title="Maurice Vile">Vile, Maurice J. C.</a> (April 2008). "The separation of powers". In <a href="Jack_P._Greene" title="Jack P. Greene">Greene, Jack P.</a>; <a href="Jack_Pole" title="Jack Pole">Pole, J. R.</a> (eds.). <i>A companion to the American Revolution</i>. Wiley (Blackwell imprint). pp. <span class="nowrap">686–</span>690. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470756454.ch87">10.1002/9780470756454.ch87</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-470-75644-7</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marshall J. (2013). Whig Thought and the Revolution of 1688–91. In: Harris, T., & Taylor, S. (Eds.). (2015). <i>The final crisis of the Stuart monarchy: the revolutions of 1688–91 in their British, Atlantic and European contexts</i>, Chapter 3. Boydell & Brewer.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurland1986595-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurland1986595_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKurland1986">Kurland 1986</a>, p. 595.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFTuckness2002" class="citation book cs1">Tuckness, Alex (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i-YA3RtI5boC&pg=PA133">"Institutional Roles, Legislative View"</a>. <i>Locke and the Legislative Point of View: Toleration, Contested Principles, and the Law</i>. Princeton University Press. p. 133. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0691095043</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tuckness, <i>Locke and the Legislative Point of View: Toleration, Contested Principles, and the Law</i>, at p. 126</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLocke1824" class="citation book cs1"><a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke, John</a> (1824). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K1UBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA215"><i>Two Treatises of Government</i></a>. C. and J. Rivington. p. 215.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Espritdeslois3-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Espritdeslois3_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a class="external text external" href="https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Esprit_des_lois_(1777)/L11/C6">"Esprit des lois (1777)/L11/C6 - Wikisource"</a>. <i>fr.wikisource.org</i> (in French)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPrice2011" class="citation cs2">Price, Sara (22 February 2011), <i>The Roman Republic in Montesquieu and Rousseau – Abstract</i>, <a href="SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1766947">1766947</a></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSchindler" class="citation cs2">Schindler, Ronald, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131012023735/http://www.rschindler.com/montesquieu.htm"><i>Montesquieu's Political Writings</i></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rschindler.com/montesquieu.htm">the original</a> on 12 October 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2012</span></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1998" class="citation cs2">Lloyd, Marshall Davies (22 September 1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mlloyd.org/mdl-indx/polybius/intro.htm"><i>Polybius and the Founding Fathers: the separation of powers</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 November</span> 2012</span></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, <i>The Spirit of Laws</i>, trans. by Thomas Nugent, revised ed. (New York: Colonial Press, 1899), Book 11, s. 6, pp. 151–162 at 151.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Montesquieu, <i>The Spirit of Laws</i>, at pp. 151–52.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Montesquieu, <i>The Spirit of Laws</i>, at p. 156.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For the case of the United States constitution: <a href="#CITEREFKurland1986">Kurland 1986</a>, p. 593</span>

</li>

</li>

</li>

</li>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagill20001170–72-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagill20001170–72_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMagill2000">Magill 2000</a>, pp. 1170–72.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKant1971" class="citation book cs1">Kant, Immanuel (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v7v3CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT79">"Perpetual Peace"</a>. In Reiss, Hans (ed.). <i>Political Writings</i>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">112–</span>13. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781107268364</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed48.asp">"The Federalist No 48"</a>. <i>Avalon Project</i>. Yale University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Wood-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWood2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Gordon_S._Wood" title="Gordon S. Wood">Wood, Gordon S.</a> (2018). "Comment". In <a href="Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Scalia, Antonin</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l3CYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54"><i>A Matter of Interpretation: Federal Courts and the Law</i></a>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">49–</span>64. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctvbj7jxv.6">10.2307/j.ctvbj7jxv.6</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 December</span> 2020</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation conference cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230822215018/https://www.hcourt.gov.au/assets/publications/speeches/former-justices/mchughj/mchughj_2july04.html"><i>The Strengths of the Weakest Arm</i></a>. Australian Bar Association Conference. Florence, Italy. 2 July 2004. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hcourt.gov.au/assets/publications/speeches/former-justices/mchughj/mchughj_2july04.html">the original</a> on 22 August 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-federalistNo51-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-federalistNo51_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJames" class="citation web cs1">James, Madison. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed51.asp">"Federalist No. 51"</a>. <i>The Avalon Project</i>. Yale University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPaine1776" class="citation book cs1">Paine, Thomas (1776). "Republican Government: On the Origin and Design of Government in General, With Concise Remarks on the English Constitution". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch4s4.html"><i>Common Sense</i></a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKuklick2018" class="citation book cs1">Kuklick, Bruce (2018). <i>Thomas Paine</i>. Taylor & Francis.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMöllers2019">Möllers 2019</a>, p. 239: "The modern theory of separated powers [...] addresses the necessary or possible relations between [institutional] actors and their normative ‘functions’. Legislation, execution of laws and adjudication are ‘functions’ that the states or other public authorities fulfil and that are carried out by respective ‘branches’. In this context, the notion of ‘function’ refers to different types of legally relevant actions."</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On this distinction, see <a href="#CITEREFMöllers2019">Möllers 2019</a>, p. 231.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMöllers2019234-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMöllers2019234_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMöllers2019">Möllers 2019</a>, p. 234.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMöllers2019240-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMöllers2019240_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMöllers2019">Möllers 2019</a>, p. 240.</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

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<ul><li><a href="Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li>

<li><a href="Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li>

<li><a href="Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li></ul>

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<li><a href="Civil_service_commission" title="Civil service commission">Civil service commission</a></li>

<li><a href="Supreme_audit_institution" title="Supreme audit institution">Auditory</a></li>

<li><a href="Election_commission" title="Election commission">Electoral</a></li>

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<ul><li><a href="Separation_of_powers_in_Australia" title="Separation of powers in Australia">Australia</a></li>

<li><a href="Separation_of_powers_in_Singapore" title="Separation of powers in Singapore"> Singapore</a></li>

<li><a href="Separation_of_powers_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Separation of powers in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li>

<li><a href="Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">United States</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dual_mandate" title="Dual mandate">Dual mandate</a></li>

<li><a href="Fusion_of_powers" title="Fusion of powers">Fusion of powers</a></li>

<li><a href="Judicial_independence" title="Judicial independence">Judicial independence</a></li>

<li><a href="Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li>

<li><a href="Parliamentary_sovereignty" title="Parliamentary sovereignty">Parliamentary sovereignty</a></li>

<li><a href="Separation_of_duties" title="Separation of duties">Separation of duties</a></li>

<li><a href="Unified_power" title="Unified power">Unified power</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy152" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Political_philosophy152" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li>

<li><a href="Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li>

<li><a href="Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li>

<li><a href="Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li>

<li><a href="Government" title="Government">Government</a></li>

<li><a href="Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li>

<li><a href="Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li>

<li><a href="Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_legitimacy" title="Political legitimacy">Legitimacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li>

<li><a href="Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li>

<li><a href="Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li>

<li><a href="Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li>

<li><a href="Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li>

<li><a href="People" title="People">People</a></li>

<li><a href="Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li>

<li><a href="Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li>

<li><a href="Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li>

<li><a href="Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li>

<li><a href="Property" title="Property">Property</a></li>

<li><a href="Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li>

<li><a href="Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li>

<li><a href="Society" title="Society">Society</a></li>

<li><a href="Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li>

<li><a href="State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li>

<li><a href="Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li>

<li><a href="Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ochlocracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ochlocracy">Ochlocracy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tyranny" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyranny">Tyranny</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>

<li><a href="Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li>

<li><a href="Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li>

<li><a href="Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li>

<li><a href="Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li>

<li><a href="Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li>

<li><a href="Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li>

<li><a href="Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li>

<li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li>

<li><a href="Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li>

<li><a href="Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li>

<li><a href="Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li>

<li><a href="Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li>

<li><a href="Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li>

<li><a href="Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li>

<li><a href="Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li>

<li><a href="Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li>

<li><a href="Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li>

<li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li>

<li><a href="Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li>

<li><a href="Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li>

<li><a href="Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li>

<li><a href="Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>

<li><a href="State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li>

<li><a href="Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li>

<li><a href="Supermajority" title="Supermajority">Supermajority</a></li>

<li><a href="Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>

<li><a href="Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li>

<li><a href="Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li>

<li><a href="Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li>

<li><a href="Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li>

<li><a href="Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li>

<li><a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>

<ul><li><a href="Plato's_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li>

<li><a href="Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li>

<li><a href="Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li>

<li><a href="Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li>

<li><a href="Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>

<li><a href="Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li>

<li><a href="Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li>

<li><a href="Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li>

<li><a href="Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li>

<li><a href="Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li>

<li><a href="Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li>

<li><a href="Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li>

<li><a href="William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li>

<li><a href="Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br>period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li>

<li><a href="Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li>

<li><a href="Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li>

<li><a href="Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a>

<ul><li><a href="Hobbes's_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li>

<li><a href="Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li>

<li><a href="Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li>

<li><a href="Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li>

<li><a href="Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li>

<li><a href="Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br>centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li>

<li><a href="Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li>

<li><a href="Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li>

<li><a href="Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_St_John%2C_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li>

<li><a href="Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li>

<li><a href="Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li>

<li><a href="Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li>

<li><a href="Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li>

<li><a href="Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li>

<li><a href="Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li>

<li><a href="Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li>

<li><a href="Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li>

<li><a href="Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li>

<li><a href="Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li>

<li><a href="Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li>

<li><a href="Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li>

<li><a href="Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li>

<li><a href="Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li>

<li><a href="Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li>

<li><a href="Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li>

<li><a href="Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li>

<li><a href="Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br>centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li>

<li><a href="B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li>

<li><a href="Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li>

<li><a href="Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li>

<li><a href="Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li>

<li><a href="Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li>

<li><a href="Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li>

<li><a href="Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li>

<li><a href="Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li>

<li><a href="Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li>

<li><a href="Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li>

<li><a href="Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li>

<li><a href="Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li>

<li><a href="Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li>

<li><a href="Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li>

<li><a href="Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li>

<li><a href="Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li>

<li><a href="Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li>

<li><a href="J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li>

<li><a href="Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Khomeini</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li>

<li><a href="Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li>

<li><a href="Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li>

<li><a href="Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li>

<li><a href="Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li>

<li><a href="Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li>

<li><a href="Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li>

<li><a href="Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li>

<li><a href="Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li>

<li><a href="Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li>

<li><a href="Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li>

<li><a href="Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li>

<li><a href="Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li>

<li><a href="Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li>

<li><a href="Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li>

<li><a href="Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li>

<li><a href="Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li>

<li><a href="Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li>

<li><a href="Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li>

<li><a href="Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li>

<li><a href="Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li>

<li><a href="Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="De_re_publica" title="De re publica">On the Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(51 BC)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchy</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1313)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1532)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1651)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1689)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1748)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1762)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1790)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1791)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1820)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1848)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1859)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1929)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1944)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1945)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1951)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1971)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li>

<li><a href="Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li>

<li><a href="Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li>

<li><a href="Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li>

<li><a href="Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li>

<li><a href="Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a>

<ul><li><a href="Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li>

<li><a href="Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li>

<li><a href="Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li>

<li><a href="Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li>

<li><a href="Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li>

<li><a href="Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li>

<li><a href="Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li>Category:Political philosophy</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q79896#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2523" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q79896#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2523" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/1112740">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Gewaltenteilung"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4071817-7">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Separation of powers"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85120094">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Séparation des pouvoirs"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13319027h">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Séparation des pouvoirs"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13319027h">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="dělba moci"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph833779&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Separación de poderes"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX544263">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="권력 분립"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KSH1998022745">Korea</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007531614905171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027763137">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/010096">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/c00de3fb-6eb4-4534-a9af-4be27f45a4c6">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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